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Class 12 Physics Revision Notes for Chapter 14 - Semiconductor Electronics - Free PDF Download
There are some points mentioned below the CBSE Physics syllabus; these are:
This syllabus helps to make latest textbooks for a best learning experience in a structured and controlled manner.
Students in the CBSE are enjoying their educational career due to getting burden-free syllabus.
Many competitive exams orgnisations do follow the CBSE syllabus strictly.
The 12th board exam in the CBSE is mandatory.
Students who look forward to making their career in engineering or medical, the CBSE board is the best option to build their base foundation.
CBSE covered all subjects in their syllabus to provide perfect knowledge to students.
The CBSE deals with Physics subjects of Class 12 by providing the NCERT textbook for having genuine concepts.
1. Energy Bands in Solids:
In the case of solids, there are single energy levels where the atoms are arranged in a systematic space lattice and therefore the atom is highly influenced by the neighboring atoms for a single isolated atom. The closeness of atoms will be resulting in the intermixing of electrons of the neighboring atoms of course, for the valence electrons, not strongly bounded by the nucleus, in the outermost shells. Because of the intermixing the number of permissible energy levels will be increased or there will be significant variations in the energy levels. Therefore, instead of single energy levels related with the single atom in the case of a solid, there will be bands of energy levels.
1.1. Conduction Band, Valence Band & Forbidden Energy Gap:
The band created by a series of energy levels including the valence electrons can be define as valence band. The valence band can be explained as a band which is inhabited by the valence electrons or a band which is having highest inhabited band energy.
The conduction band can be explained as the least unfilled energy band. The forbidden energy gap can be define as the separation between conduction band and valence band. There will be no permitted energy state in this gap and therefore electron can’t occupy in the forbidden energy gap.
1.2. Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators:
Conductors are the materials which can conduct the charge carriers easily. Insulators are the materials in which the free flow of charge carriers is not possible. And semiconductors are the materials which have conductivity in between insulators and conductors.
According to the forbidden band, the insulators, semiconductors and conductors can be explained as mentioned below:
1.2.1. Insulators:
The forbidden energy band will be very wide in case of insulators. Because of this information electrons will not be jumped from valence band to conduction band. The valence electrons will be bond very tightly to their parent atoms in insulators. Increase in temperature will be enabling some electrons to move to the conduction band.
1.2.2. Semiconductors:
The forbidden band will be very small in semiconductors. Silicon and Germanium can be taken as the examples of semiconductors.
A semiconductor material will be the one having electrical characteristics lying between insulators and good conductors. If a little amount of energy has been supplied, the electrons can jump from valence band to conduction band easily. As an example, if the temperature will be enhanced, then the forbidden band will be reduced such that some electrons are liberated into the conduction band.
1.2.3. Conductors:
There will be no forbidden band and the valence band and conduction band overlap each other, in case of the conductors. Here a lot of free electrons will be available for the conduction of electricity. A small potential difference across the conductor will be causing the free electrons for including the electric current. The very relevant point in conductors is that because of the absence of forbidden band, there will be no structure for establishing holes. The summation of current in conductors will be simply a flow of electrons.
2. Semiconductors:
Hence, semiconductor can be defined as a substance which is having resistivity in between conductors and insulators.
Semiconductors will be having the properties mentioned below.
(i) They will be having less resistivity than insulators and more than conductors.
(ii) The resistance of semiconductor will be reduced with the increase in temperature and vice versa.
(iii) If suitable metallic impurity such as arsenic, gallium etc. will be added to a semiconductors, its current conducting characteristics varies appreciably.
2.1. Impact of temperature of Semiconductors:
The semiconductor crystal will be acting like a proper insulator since the covalent bonds are pretty much strong and no free electrons are available. At room temperature, some of the covalent bonds will be broken due to the thermal energy given to the crystal. Due to the breakage of the bonds, some electrons will be free which were inhabited in the production of these bonds.
The non-appearance of the electron in the covalent bond can be represented by a small circle. Therefore Hole can be shown as an empty place or vacancy left behind in the crystal structure. Since an electron is having unit negative charge, the hole will be similarly having a unit positive charge.
2.2. Mechanism of conduction of Electrons and Holes:
If the electrons are released on the breakage of the covalent bonds, they will be moving randomly through the lattice of crystal.
If an electric field has been applied, these free electrons will be having a uniform drift which is opposite to the direction of field applied. This can be referred to as the electric current. If a covalent bond is broken, a hole has been produced. One hole is produced when one electron sets free. This thermal energy will be producing electron-hole pairs-there will be as many holes as free electrons. These holes can go through the crystal lattice in a random fashion such as free electrons. The holes drift in the direction of the applied field, if an external electric field is applied. Hence, this can be referred to as electric current.
There will be a strong tendency of semiconductor crystals for producing covalent bonds. Hence, a hole will be attracting an electron from the neighboring atom. Now a valence electron from nearby covalent bond will be coming for occupying in the hole at A . This will cause in a production of hole at B . The hole will be therefore successfully shifted from A to B . This hole will be moving from B to C from C to D and so on.
This movement of the hole in the non-appearance of an applied field will be random. But the hole gets drifted along the applied field, if an electric field has been applied.
2.3. Generation and Recombination of Carrier:
The electrons and holes will be produced in pairs. The free electrons and holes will move within the crystal lattice in an irregular manner. There is always a chance that an electron which is free will be meeting with a hole, in such a random motion. If a free electron encounter a hole, they will recombine for re-establishing the covalent bond. Both the free electron and hole will be destroyed in the process of recombination and cause in the emission of energy as heat. The energy produced thereby, may in turn will get re-absorbed by another electron for breaking its covalent bond. In this manner a new electron-hole pair will be generated.
Hence, the method of splitting of covalent bonds and recombination of electrons and holes will be taking place simultaneously. If the temperature will be increased, the rate of generation of electrons and holes will be enhanced. This is turn increases, the densities of electrons and hole will get increased. Because of this the conductivity of semiconductor will be increased or resistivity decreased. This will be the reason that semiconductors is having negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
2.4. Pure or Intrinsic Semiconductor and Impure or Extrinsic Semiconductors:
Intrinsic semiconductor can be defined as a semiconductor in which electrons and holes are solely produced by thermal excitation or a semiconductor in an extremely pure form is referred as a pure or intrinsic semiconductor. The number of free electrons will be always equivalent to the number of holes in intrinsic semiconductor.
2.4.1. Extrinsic Semiconductors:
The electrical conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor will be enhanced by the addition of some impurity in the method of crystallization. The added impurity will be very small of the order of one atom per million atoms of the pure semiconductor. This kind of semiconductor can be referred as impurity or extrinsic semiconductor. The method of infusing impurity to a semiconductor can be defined as doping.
The doping material will be either pentavalent atoms such as bismuth, antimony, arsenic, phosphorus which are having five valence electrons or trivalent atoms such as gallium, indium, aluminium, boron which are having three valence electrons. The pentavalent doping atom can be referred as donor atom since it is donating one electron to the conduction band of pure semiconductor.
The doping materials can be referred as impurities as they change the structure of semiconductor crystals which are pure.
2.4.2. N–Type Extrinsic Semiconductor:
If a little amount of pentavalent impurity has been added to a pure semiconductor crystal while the crystal growth, the produced crystal can be referred as N-type extrinsic semiconductor.
The following points should be remembered in case of N-type semiconductor
(i) The electrons will be the majority carriers while positive holes are minority carriers, in N-type semiconductor.
(ii) Even though N-type semiconductor is having excess of electrons but it will be electrically neutral. This will be because of the fact that electrons are produced by the addition of neutral pentavalent impurity atoms to the semiconductor. That is, there will be no addition of either positive or negative charges.
2.4.3. P–Type Extrinsic Semiconductor:
If a little amount of trivalent impurity has been added to a pure crystal while the crystal growth, the produced crystal can be referred as P-type extrinsic semiconductor.
The following points should be remembered in case of P-type semiconductor:
(i) The majority carriers are positive holes but minority carriers are the electrons in P-type semiconductor materials.
(ii) The P–type semiconductor will be remaining electrically neutral as the number of mobile holes under all conditions remains equivalent to the number of acceptors.
2.5. P–N Junction Diode:
If a P-type material has joined to N-type intimately, a P-N junction will be created. Joining the two pieces a P-N junction will not be formed due to the surface films and other irregularities creating major discontinuity in the crystal structure. Hence, a P-N junction will be created from a piece of semiconductor (say, germanium) by diffusing P-type material to one half side and N-type material to the other half side. If a P-type crystal has kept in contact with N-type crystal so as to produce one piece, the assembly required will be defined as P-N junction diode.
2.5.1. Forward Bias:
The junction diode can be defined as forward biased, if external d.c. source has been connected to the diode with p–section connected to positive pole and n–section connected to negative pole.
2.5.2. Reverse Bias:
The junction diode can be defined as reverse biased, if an external d.c. battery has been connected to junction diode with P–section connected to negative pole and n–section connected to positive pole.
Note:
P–N JUNCTION can be defined as a device which will be offering low resistance when forward biased and act as an insulator if reverse biased.
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